European Journal of Medicinal Plants

Medicinal Plant Diversity and Conservation in the Environmental Education Theme Park of RIE Ajmer: A Case Study

Sanjeeb K. Das — 2026-08-01

Medicinal plants constitute an important component of biodiversity and provide valuable opportunities for environmental education, conservation awareness, and the preservation of ethnobotanical knowledge. The present study documented medicinal plant diversity within the Environmental Education Theme Park of the Regional Institute of Education (RIE), Ajmer, Rajasthan. Field surveys were conducted during 2025–2026 through direct observation, specimen collection, photography, and interaction with local residents. Plant specimens were identified using standard floristic literature and available taxonomic monographs. A total of 113 medicinal plant species belonging to 89 genera and 50 families were recorded on the campus. The inventory comprised 106 dicot species representing 82 genera and 45 families and seven monocot species representing six genera and five families. Based on growth habit, the recorded flora included 47 trees, 38 herbs, 21 shrubs, and seven climbers. Fabaceae and Euphorbiaceae were the dominant families, each represented by six species, while Ficus was the most represented genus, with three species. Nine medicinal plant species were reported under Rare, Endangered, or Threatened categories, indicating the need for site-based conservation attention. The documented campus flora demonstrates the potential of the theme park as a practical resource for plant identification, biodiversity education, and awareness of medicinal plant conservation. Continued monitoring, taxonomic verification, voucher documentation, and appropriate in situ and ex situ conservation measures are required to support the sustainable management and educational use of these medicinal plant resources.

Unveiling the Safety Margin: Acute Toxicity Assessment and LD₅₀ Determination of Senna occidentalis Extract in Wistar Rats

H. Bawa — 2026-08-03

Background: Senna occidentalis is used as a medicinal plant in several parts of Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Its seeds, leaves, roots, and stems have been used as laxatives, analgesics, diuretics, antibiotics, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antihyperlipidaemic, antioxidant, and antianaemic agents, and in the treatment of malaria, influenza, and liver and urinary tract infections.

Aim: This study assessed the acute oral toxicity and median lethal dose (LD₅₀) of ethanolic leaf, stem, and root extracts of S. occidentalis in female Wistar rats.

Materials and Methods: Twelve nulliparous, non-pregnant female Wistar rats aged 8–12 weeks were randomly assigned to four groups (n = 3 per group). Group 1 (control) received distilled water, whereas Groups 2, 3, and 4 received 2,000 mg/kg of S. occidentalis leaf, stem, and root extracts, respectively, by oral administration. The rats were observed for signs of toxicity, general behaviour, and mortality for 14 days. At the end of the experiment, the rats were euthanised, and the liver, kidneys, and heart were harvested for examination.

Results: S. occidentalis produced no signs of toxicity or mortality during the study period; however, the leaf and stem extracts significantly (p < 0.05) reduced body weight. None of the extracts significantly affected the weights of the liver, kidneys, or heart. Phytochemical screening revealed alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, phenols, tannins, flavonoids, and saponins in all extracts. Steroids and terpenoids were detected in the root and stem extracts, anthraquinones and glycosides in the root extract, and polyphenols in the stem extract. The LD₅₀ values of the S. occidentalis leaf, stem, and root extracts were greater than 2,000 mg/kg.

Conclusion: A single oral dose of 2,000 mg/kg of S. occidentalis leaf, stem, and root extracts caused no mortality or visible acute toxicity and did not significantly alter liver, kidney, or heart weights in female Wistar rats. Nevertheless, further biochemical, haematological, neurobehavioural, gross pathological, and histological assessments are required.

Protective Effects of Hydromethanolic Leaf Extracts of Carica papaya and Chromolaena odorata on Cadmium-induced Intestinal Injury in Wistar Rats

Igattah, Prudence Akachukwu — 2026-08-08

Aims: To evaluate the protective effects of hydromethanolic leaf extracts of Carica papaya and Chromolaena odorata, administered individually and in combination, against cadmium-induced intestinal oxidative damage in Wistar rats.

Study Design: Experimental animal study.

Place and Duration of Study: Animal House, Department of Animal and Environmental Biology, Rivers State University, Port Harcourt, Nigeria, between February 2025 and October 2025.

Methodology: Forty-eight albino Wistar rats were randomly assigned to eight groups (n = 6). Intestinal injury was induced by oral administration of cadmium chloride (20 mg/kg body weight) for 14 days, followed by treatment with hydromethanolic leaf extracts of Carica papaya (300 and 600 mg/kg), Chromolaena odorata (250 and 500 mg/kg), or their combined extracts (300 and 600 mg/kg) for 14 days. Phytochemical constituents of both plants were identified using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, while heavy metal contents were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Serum cadmium concentration, intestinal oxidative stress biomarkers (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and malondialdehyde), and histopathological changes were evaluated using standard analytical methods. Data were analysed using one-way analysis of variance followed by Tukey's post hoc test at P < 0.05.

Results: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry revealed the presence of diverse bioactive phytochemicals in both plant extracts, while heavy metal concentrations were within recommended safety limits. Cadmium exposure significantly increased serum cadmium concentration and malondialdehyde levels while significantly reducing superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase activities compared with the normal control (P < 0.05). Treatment with the hydromethanolic leaf extracts significantly reduced serum cadmium concentration, restored antioxidant enzyme activities, decreased lipid peroxidation, and improved intestinal histoarchitecture in a dose-dependent manner. The high-dose C. papaya extract showed the greatest recovery of superoxide dismutase activity, whereas the high-dose combined extract was most effective in reducing lipid peroxidation and improving intestinal histoarchitecture.

Conclusion: Hydromethanolic leaf extracts of Carica papaya and Chromolaena odorata protected against cadmium-induced intestinal oxidative injury by reducing cadmium burden, improving antioxidant status, and preserving intestinal tissue architecture. While the high-dose C. papaya extract produced the greatest recovery of superoxide dismutase activity, the combined extract showed marked protective effects, particularly in reducing lipid peroxidation and preserving intestinal histoarchitecture, suggesting its potential as a phytotherapeutic approach against cadmium-induced intestinal toxicity.

Standardization of Trikatu Powder and Comparative Analysis of the Quality Parameters of Its Constituent Drugs

Shreelakshmi Harikrishnan — 2026-08-10

Trikatu is a classical polyherbal formulation consisting of Shunthi (Zingiber officinale), Maricha (Piper nigrum), and Pippali (Piper longum) in equal proportions. Standardisation of herbal formulations is essential to ensure consistency and quality of raw materials and finished products. The present study aimed to evaluate and compare the quality parameters of Trikatu powder and its individual constituent drugs through organoleptic, physicochemical, chromatographic, and analytical approaches. The collected samples were authenticated and processed individually before preparation of Trikatu powder. Organoleptic and macroscopic characteristics were evaluated, followed by assessment of moisture content, ash values, extractive values, thin-layer chromatography (TLC), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The physicochemical parameters showed moisture content of 7.6%, 9.36%, 8.36%, and 9.6%; total ash values of 4.6%, 4.45%, 6.45%, and 4.6%; water-soluble extractive values of 4.4%, 14.4%, 19.4%, and 19.4%; and alcohol-soluble extractive values of 7.4%, 15.44%, 13.44%, and 15.4% for Shunthi, Maricha, Pippali, and Trikatu powders, respectively, establishing comparative analytical profiles. TLC analysis demonstrated characteristic chromatographic patterns for individual ingredients and the combined formulation. HPLC analysis confirmed the presence of Piperine as a marker compound in Trikatu powder, with a quantified content of 0.018 mg/mL (0.18%), indicating the presence of a key bioactive constituent. The findings provide analytical information regarding the quality characteristics and standardisation parameters of Trikatu powder. The study contributes baseline data for quality evaluation and supports further investigations related to the formulation.

Phytochemical Screening and Biological Studies of Different Extracts and GC-MS Analysis of n-Hexane Extracts of Stem Bark and Root of Calophyllum inophyllum Linn Growing in Bangladesh

Rahima Akter — 2026-08-19

Calophyllum inophyllum is a medicinal plant containing numerous bioactive compounds with diverse pharmacological properties. This study investigated the phytochemical composition and antioxidant, cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory activities of successive n-hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate and methanol extracts of its stem bark and root. The n-hexane extracts were subjected to GC-MS analysis to identify their major chemical constituents. All extracts contained steroids and terpenoids, while the occurrence of other phytochemicals varied according to solvent polarity. The ethyl acetate extracts exhibited the highest DPPH radical-scavenging activity, with IC₅₀ values of 22.90 µg/mL for the stem bark and 45.70 µg/mL for the root, followed by the methanol extracts. The stem bark methanol extract had the highest total phenolic content (398.53 ± 1.89 mg GAE/g), whereas the root ethyl acetate and methanol extracts had the highest flavonoid contents and total antioxidant capacities. The stem bark ethyl acetate extract exhibited cytotoxic activity, with an LC₅₀ value of 25.64 µg/mL, compared with 3.57 µg/mL for vincristine sulfate. The methanol extracts exhibited the highest anti-inflammatory activity, with IC₅₀ values of 21.03 µg/mL for the root and 34.73 µg/mL for the stem bark. GC-MS profiling identified 14 compounds in the stem bark extract and 22 compounds in the root extract, with 13-docosenamide and glycerol 1-palmitate as the major constituents, respectively. Overall, the results indicate that the comparatively polar extracts of C. inophyllum possess antioxidant, cytotoxic, and anti-inflammatory activities.

Atherogenicity Index and Electrolyte Parameters in Male and Female Rats Treated with the Aqueous Extract of the Barkless Roots of Rauvolfia vomitoria (EARv) AFZEL during Six (6) Months

N’CHO Roland Patrick — 2026-08-26

The atherogenicity index, determined from various plasma lipid fractions in conjunction with electrolyte parameters, is a major predictor of cardiovascular risk. This study aimed to compare the effects of the aqueous extract of the debarked roots of Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel. (Apocynaceae) (EARv) on the atherogenicity index and electrolyte parameters in male and female rats treated for six months. Harvested Rauvolfia vomitoria roots were debarked and then processed into an aqueous extract by maceration. One hundred healthy rats were divided into four groups (T, A, B, C) of 20 rats each, comprising 10 males and 10 females per group. Groups Ts and Cs, derived from groups T and C, each consisted of 10 rats, comprising 5 males and 5 females, for the reversibility study. The rats in groups A and B received the extract at doses of 500 and 700 mg/kg body weight, respectively, while those in groups C and Cs received 1,000 mg/kg body weight of EARv orally for six months at a rate of 2 mL/100 g b.w. Serum from collected blood samples was used to determine LDL cholesterol concentrations, the atherogenicity index, and electrolyte levels (Na⁺, K⁺, and Cl⁻) after 1, 3, and 6 months of treatment. The results showed that EARv exerts a non-atherogenic and progressive, dose- and time-dependent lipid-lowering effect through a reduction in LDL cholesterol and the atherogenicity index. Furthermore, it does not disrupt electrolyte parameters, indicating good renal tolerance and suggesting that the extract does not compromise water-electrolyte homeostasis. Taken together, these results support the cardioprotective potential and safety of EARv during prolonged administration.

Documentation of Medicinal flora of Govt Science College Campus, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India

Daulat Ram Gwalwanshi — 2026-09-04

This study documents the medicinal plant diversity recorded during July 2025–July 2026 on the campus of Government Science College, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh. The college campus harbours considerable biological diversity and supports a large population of students and researchers who utilise its diverse plant resources for academic, teaching, and research purposes. A total of 106 medicinal plant species belonging to 99 genera and 55 families were documented and evaluated for their therapeutic significance. Among the recorded medicinal plants, herbs constituted the largest proportion (36%), followed by trees (34%), climbers (16%), and shrubs (14%). These medicinal plants are traditionally utilised for the management of a wide range of ailments, including fever, diarrhoea, bone fractures, parasitic worm infections, enhancement of milk production, and snake bites. Leaves were found to be the most frequently utilised plant part, while paste was the most common form of medicinal preparation. Several plant species are collected from natural or wild habitats for medicinal purposes. In addition, new plant species are regularly introduced and cultivated on the campus through annual tree plantation and greening programmes. The conservation and maintenance of these plant resources are supported by the Department of Botany and the Botanical Garden Committee, with active participation by college staff. The campus also contains several aromatic and medicinal plant species of educational and research importance. Considering the increasing demand for medicinal plants and the need for conservation of plant diversity, a systematic survey of the entire college campus was undertaken to document its medicinal plant resources. Plant specimens were collected, identified using standard taxonomic literature and relevant scientific references, and subsequently evaluated for their diversity, medicinal uses, and conservation significance. The findings provide valuable baseline information for promoting biodiversity conservation, sustainable utilisation of medicinal plants, and future academic and research activities on the college campus.

Chemical Composition and Antibacterial Activity of Essential Oils from Ocimum Species: Potential β-Lactamase Inhibition Revealed by Molecular Docking

Flávia Costa de Moraes — 2026-09-07

Aims: This study investigated the chemical composition and antibacterial properties of essential oils from three Ocimum species (O. americanum, O. gratissimum, and O. selloi) and analysed the molecular interactions of their main compounds with β-lactamase.

Study Design: This exploratory experimental study integrated laboratory-based in vitro chemical and biological assays with in silico analyses.

Place and Duration of Study: All experiments were conducted at the Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Juiz de Fora (UFJF), Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil, between January 2018 and July 2022.

Methodology: The essential oils from O. americanum (EOA), O. gratissimum (EOG), and O. selloi (EOS) were obtained by hydrodistillation and characterised by GC-MS and GC-FID. Antibacterial activity was assessed against S. aureus, S. epidermidis, P. aeruginosa, and E. coli using agar diffusion, followed by determination of minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs). Molecular docking was performed to investigate interactions between selected compounds and class A β-lactamase from E. coli.

Results: Linalool, 1,8-cineole, and camphor were identified as the major constituents of EOA; eugenol was the major constituent of EOG; and methyl chavicol was the major constituent of EOS. EOS showed no antibacterial activity against the tested species, whereas EOA was effective against S. aureus, with a MIC of 625 µg/mL. EOG exhibited activity against S. aureus, S. epidermidis, and E. coli, with an MIC of 625 µg/mL. Molecular docking analysis indicated that the major identified compounds, namely camphor, cineole, linalool, eugenol, ocimene, and methyl chavicol, may interact with class A β-lactamase from E. coli, suggesting a potential inhibitory effect on this enzyme.

Conclusion: Essential oils from O. americanum and O. gratissimum exhibited antibacterial activity, with EOG showing broader activity. Molecular docking revealed interactions with class A β-lactamase, supporting Ocimum oils as promising sources of antibacterial bioactive compounds.

Multi-Functional Phytotherapeutics for Health and Socio-Ecological Sustainability: A Critical Narrative Review of Evidence, Trade-Offs and Governance

Rajeshwari Ullagaddi — 2026-08-22

Plant-derived preparations are increasingly promoted as interventions that deliver therapeutic benefit while simultaneously supporting rural incomes, cultural continuity and habitat stewardship. This framing, described here as multi-functionality, has become influential in policy and commercial discourse, yet the evidence supporting each of its component claims has rarely been appraised together. The present review examines whether the therapeutic, socio-economic and ecological functions attributed to phytotherapeutics are supported by evidence of comparable strength, and where the assumed synergies between them break down. Literature was identified through structured searching of open scholarly indexes and citation tracking, followed by verification of bibliographic identity for every retained source. Five findings emerge. Clinical evidence remains concentrated in a small number of well-characterised preparations, while much of the wider literature is compromised by inadequate chemical characterisation of the material tested and by computational inference that recycles a narrow set of database-privileged molecules. Safety evidence is dominated by product-level failures, including adulteration and elemental contamination, rather than by intrinsic pharmacological toxicity alone. Ecological evidence indicates that demand-driven harvest pressure is real but unevenly documented, with extinction-risk assessment biased towards conspicuous and commercially prominent taxa. Socio-economic evidence shows that harvesters typically capture a minor share of final value, and that gendered participation is high where returns are lowest. Governance instruments addressing quality, benefit sharing and trade operate on different jurisdictional logics and are only weakly coupled to one another. The convergence of health and sustainability objectives is therefore conditional rather than automatic, and depends on supply model, species biology, market structure and regulatory capacity. Research priorities include harvest-response studies for high-volume traded taxa, chemically characterised pragmatic trials, and value-chain analyses that report distributional outcomes alongside conservation indicators.

Oral Ulceration and Medicinal Plants for Treatment: A Critical Narrative Review with Emphasis on Recurrent Aphthous Stomatitis

Anjali Parmar — 2026-09-07

Oral ulcers are a frequent clinical problem but represent a heterogeneous group of lesions rather than a single disease. Their management therefore begins with diagnosis: traumatic, infectious, immune-mediated, drug-associated, systemic and potentially malignant causes require different responses. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis is the principal focus of botanical treatment research because it is common, painful, self-limiting and often recurrent despite conventional symptomatic therapy. This critical narrative review integrates evidence on the clinical assessment of oral ulceration, the pathobiology and management of recurrent aphthous stomatitis, and the therapeutic potential of medicinal plants. Literature was selected from major open scholarly sources using combinations of terms for oral ulceration, recurrent aphthous stomatitis, medicinal plants, herbal medicine, phytochemicals, randomised trials, pain, ulcer size, healing and recurrence. The evidence is strongest for topical botanical preparations evaluated in minor recurrent aphthous stomatitis, particularly curcumin derived from Curcuma longa, Aloe vera preparations, chamomile, liquorice, myrtle, pomegranate, sage and sumac. Across trials and systematic reviews, several agents reduce pain, ulcer dimensions or healing time, but confidence is constrained by small single-centre samples, variable plant identity and extraction methods, heterogeneous formulations and doses, short observation periods, incomplete blinding, active-comparator designs without non-inferiority margins, and the naturally resolving course of minor ulcers. Mechanistic plausibility based on anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, antimicrobial and wound-healing actions is supportive but cannot substitute for clinical evidence. Botanical products should therefore be considered formulation-specific therapeutic candidates rather than interchangeable plant remedies. Progress requires authenticated plant material, chemically characterised preparations, placebo-controlled and adequately powered trials, recurrence-focused outcomes, rigorous adverse-event monitoring and direct comparisons with accepted topical therapy. Medicinal plants are promising adjuncts for appropriately diagnosed recurrent aphthous stomatitis, but they should not delay investigation of persistent, atypical or systemically associated oral ulceration.