Evaluation of Phytochemical and Mineral Constituents of Piper guineense Schum. & Thonn. and Piper Umbellatum Linn: Implications for Ethnomedicine
European Journal of Medicinal Plants,
Page 84-97
DOI:
10.9734/ejmp/2020/v31i130209
Abstract
Aims: A significant number of tropical rainforest shrubs and lianes are inextricably linked to human use as food, spices and/or medicine. This study evaluates phytochemical and mineral constituents and ethnomedicinal uses of Piper guineense Schum. & Thonn and Piper umbellatum Linn.
Methods: Two phased investigations – ethnomedicinal uses and phytochemical/mineral constituents of P. guineense and P. umbellatum – were carried out in Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria. Firstly, key informants’ interview and questionnaire were used to elicit reactions from respondents (vendors and end users) on ethnomedicinal and sundry uses of P. guineense and P. umbellatum in nine purposively selected markets out of 27. Secondly, samples of leaves and stems of P. guineense and P. umbellatum were collected and analysed in the laboratory for selected phytochemicals (alkaloid, cyanogenic glycosides, tannin, flavonoid, tannins, anthraquinones, saponin and phenol), and minerals (Ca, Mg, Na, K, P, Fe, Zn).
Results: Market survey revealed that vendor/end users (85%) were well-informed on the uses of the plants for food (spices, condiments) and ethnomedicine. Most respondents (80%) affirmed that the leaves were frequently used for flavouring; and for preparing traditional medicinal soups when combined with assorted vegetables. Respondents (80%) averred that the leaf was the most frequently used followed by stems (10.9%), roots (5.5%) and seeds (3.6%). P. guineense was considered best for stomach disorder/ulcer, respiratory/urinary tract infections; P. umbellatum most preferred for arthritis, fever and fertility/womb cleansing. Phytochemical analysis revealed P. umbellatum stem had more alkaloids, flavonoids and phenol; and anthraquinone in the leaf while P. guineense stem had more saponins and tannins. However, mineral analyses revealed more Ca and Mg in P. guineense leaf; and K, Na, Zn and P in P. umbellatum stem while Fe was higher in the leaf.
Conclusion: P. guineense and P. umbellatum are aromatic liane and shrub used for flavouring and spicing of food, and medicine. These fairly ubiquitous and underutilized plants can contribute significantly to food and health needs of forest dependent people in Nigeria and elsewhere in West Africa. The study has revealed that these aromatic plants are rich sources of phytomedicines and important minerals. Further investigation on the phytochemical/pharmacological potentials and ecological idiosyncrasies of these underutilized aromatic rainforest liane and shrub is recommended.
Keywords:
- Indigenous knowledge
- minerals
- phytochemicals
- spices
- underutilized species
- market vendor
How to Cite
Isikhuemen, E. M., Ogbomwan, B. O., & Efenudu, I. U. (2020). Evaluation of Phytochemical and Mineral Constituents of Piper guineense Schum. & Thonn. and Piper Umbellatum Linn: Implications for Ethnomedicine. European Journal of Medicinal Plants, 31(1), 84-97. https://doi.org/10.9734/ejmp/2020/v31i130209
References
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Anyanwu CU, Nwosu GC. Assessment of the antimicrobial activity of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Piper guineense leaves. Journal of Medicinal Plant Research. 2014;8(10):337-439.
Tapsell LC, Hemphill I, Coblac L. Health benefits of herbs and spices.The past, the present and the future. Australian Medical Journal. 2006;185:54–24.
Akindahunsi AA, Salawu SO. Phytochemical screening and nutrient – anti-nutrient composition of selected green leafy vegetables. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2005;4:497–501.
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Ashok K, Upadhyaya K. Tannins are Astringent. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2012;3(1):49-60.
Okoye EI, Ebeledike AO. Phytochemical constituents of Piper guineense (uziza) and their health implications on some microorganisms. Global Resources Journal of Science. 2013;2(2):42–46.
Manta S, Saxena J, Nema R, Singh D, Gupta A. Photochemistry of medicinal plants. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2013;1(6):168-182.
Lee KG, Shibumoto J. Determination of antioxidant potentials of volatile extracts isolated from various herbs and spices. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry. 2002;50:4947–4955.
Adesokan AA, Akanji MA. Antimalarial bioactivity of Enantia chlorantha stem and bark. Journal of Medicinal plants, Phytochemical, Pharmacology Therapeu-tic. 2010;4(1):441– 454.
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Jabeen S, Shah MT, Khan S, Hayat SQ. Determination of major and trace elements in ten important folk therapeutic plants of Harispur basin Pakistan. Journal of Medical Research. 2010;4(7):559-566.
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Nunez V, Castro V, Nurillo R, Ponce-soto LA, Merfoot I, Lomonte B. Inhibitory effects of Piper umbellatum and Piper peltatum extracts towards myotoxic phospholipase A2 from Bothrops snake venoms: isolation of 4-nerolidylcatchol as active principle. Phytochemistry. 2005;66:1017–1025.
Ogunwande IA, Walker TM, Setzer WW. A review of aromatic herbal plants of medicinal importance from Nigeria. Article in Natural products communication. 2007; 2(12):1311-1316.
Agbor GA, Vinton JA, Oben JE, Ngogang JI. Invitro antioxidant activity of the Piper species. Journal of Herbal Phamaco-therapy.2007;7:39–46.
Nwauzoma AB, Dawari S. Studies on phytochemical properties and proximate analysis of Piper umbellatum (Linn). Department of Applied and Environmental Biology. River State University of Science and Technology. Port Harcourt Nigeria; 2013.
Isikhuemen EM, Bamawo, OP. Effect of forest understorey shade on vegetative growth and development of Thaumatococcus daniellii, (Benn.) Benth. Nigerian Journal of Forestry. 2013; 43(1&2):45–52.
Beak Consultants. Forest resources study Nigeria. Revised Forest Management Plan Edo State. Report prepared by Beak Consultants Ltd in association with Geomatics International Inc. and Geomatics Nigeria Ltd for FORMECU Federal Department of Forestry, Abuja, Nigeria; 1999.
Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM. Flora of West Tropical Africa. Crown Agents for Overseas Governments and Administrations, London. With annotations (marked APD) from African Plants Database (version 3.4.0). Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève and South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria; 1937.
Available:http://www.villege.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/
Akerele JO, Ayinde BA, Ngiah J. Phytochemical and antibacterial evaluation of the stem bark of Newbouldia laevis against isolates from infected wounds and eyes. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2011:10(2):211–218.
Krishnaiah D, Sarbatly R, Bono A, Sarbatly R. Studies on Phytochemical constituents of six Malaysian medicinal plants. Journal of Medicinal Plant Research. 2007;3(2):67-72.
Soladoye MO. Chukwuma EC. Phytochemical analysis of stem and root of Cissus populnea (Vitaceae) – An important medicinal plant in Central Nigeria. Phytologia Balcanica. 2012;18:149–153.
Piero NM, Joan MN, Richard OO, Jalemba MA, Omwoyo OR. Determination of cyanogenic compounds content in transgenic and cyanogenic Kenyan cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) genotypes: Linking molecular analysis to biochemical analysis. Journal of Analytical and Bioanalytical Techniques. 2015;6:264–271.
AOAC. Official methods of analysis of the association of officials’ analytical chemists. 17th Edition. Association of official analytical chemists. Arlington, Virginia; 2003.
Gul S, Safdar M. Proximate composition and mineral analysis of Cinnamon. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition. 2009;8(9): 1456–1460.
Zougagh S, Belghiti A, Rochd T, Zerdani I, Mouslim J. Medicinal and aromatic plants used in traditional treatment of the oral pathology: The ethnobotanical survey in the economic capital Casablanca, Morocco (North Africa). Natural Products and Bioprospecting. 2018;9:35–48.
DOI: 10.1007/s13659-018-0194-6
Phillips O, Gentry AH, Reynel C. Wilkin P. Ga´lvez Durand BC. Quantitative ethnobotany and Amazonian conservation. Conservation Biology. 1994;8(1):225–248.
Available:https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08010225.x
Vitalini S, Iriti M, Puricelli C, Ciuchi D, Segale A, Fico G. Traditional knowledge on medicinal and food plants used in Val San Giacomo (Sondrio, Italy)—an alpine ethnobotanical study. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2013;145(2):517–529.
Suroowan S, Mahomoodally MF. A comparative ethnopharmacological analysis of traditional medicine used against respiratory tract diseases in Mauritius. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2016;177:61–80.
Pfeiffer JM, Butz RJ. Assessing cultural and ecological variation in ethnobiological research: the importance of gender. Journal of Ethnobiology 2005;25:240–278.
Available:https://doi.org/10.2993/0278-0771(2005)25%5b240:ACAEVI%5d2.0.CO;2.
Howard P. The Major Importance of ‘minor’ Resources: Women and Plant Biodiversity (International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), London; 2003.
Ould EHM, Hadj-Mahammed M, Zabeirou H. Place of spontaneous plants in the traditional medicine of the region of Ouargla (Northern Sahara), Courrier du Savoir. 2003;03:47–51.
Available:http://www.webreview.dz/IMG/pdf/6-Ould_H_didi.pdf
Benlamdini N, Elhafian M, Rochdi A, Zidane L. Etude floristique et ethnobotanique de la flore me´dicinale du haut Atlas oriental (Haute Moulouya). Journal of Appllied Bioscience. 2014;78: 6771–6787. Available:https://doi.org/10.4314/jab.v78i1.17
Chinwendu S, Eike EN, Ejike BU, Oti W, Nwachukwu L. Phytochemical properties of Uziza leaf. European Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 2016;3(2):31-42.
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Nair M, Balachandran KK, Sankarnarayan VN, Joseph T. Heavy metals uptake in fishes from coastal waters of cochin, South West Coast of India, Indian Journal of Marine Science. 1997;26:98-100.
Mensah JK, Okoli RI, Ohaju-Obodo JO, Eifediyi K. Chemical nutritional and medical properties of leafy vegetables consumed by Edo people of Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2008;7: 2304–2309.
Njoku PC, Arykumefula MI. Nutritional, phytochemical and antimicrobial properties of two wild aromatic vegetables. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition. 2007;6:613–615.
Johnson SK, Blanchard A. Alternative medicine and herbal use among university students. Journal of American Coll Health. 2006;55(3):163-16.
Adegbola JD. Molluscicidal properties of some African plants. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative medicine. 1972;107:108–115.
Sumathykutty MA, Rao JM, Padmakumari KP, Narayanan CS. Essential oil constituents of some Piper Species, Flavors Fragrance. Journal. 2007; 14:280-281.
Saxena M, Saxena J, Nema R, Singh D. Gupta A. Phytochemistry of medicinal plants. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2013;1(6):177–196.
Memudu AE, Akinrinade ID, Ogundele ON, Dare BJ. Effects of crude extract of dry fruits of Piper guineense on male fertility parameters of adult Sprague Dawley rats. European Journal of Medicinal Plants. 2015;5(3):297-303.
Ekanem AP, Udoh FV, Oku EE. Effects of ethanol extract of P. guineense seeds on the conception of mice (Mus musculus). African Journal of Pharmacology. 2010; 4(6):362–367.
Atindehou KK, Schmid C, Brun R, Kone MW. Traore D. Antitrypanosomal and antiplasmodial activity of medicinal plants from Cote d'Ivoire. Journal of Ethno-pharmacology. 2004;90:221–227.
Jiofack T, Fkunang AC, Guedge N, Kemeuze, V. Ethnobotany and phytomedicine of the upper Nyong Valley forest of Cameroon. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2009;3(4): 144–150.
Hammer MGA, Johns EA. Tapping an Amazonia Plethora. Four medicinal plants of Marajo Island (Brazil). Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1993;40:53–75.
Burkhill HM. Piper umbellatum Linn (Family: Piperaceae). West tropical Africa, 2nd Edition. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK; 1985.
Ndukwu BC, Ben-Nwadibia NB. Ethnomedical aspect of plants used as spices and condiments in the Niger Delta area of Nigeria in Press. International Journal of Ethnobotanical Research. 2009; 2(1):51–58.
Oliver BEP. Medicinal plants of Nigeria. Nigeria College of Arts Science Technology, Cambridge University Press; 1960.
Zaree R, Farhadi M, Mohammdzadeh Z, Goudarzi GR. Extraction and comparison of alkaloids in different organs during different phonological periods of Nitraria schoberi. Annals of Biological Research. 2013;4(2):130-135.
Kareem KT, Kareem SO, Adeyemo OJ, Egberongbe RK. In vitro antimicrobial properties of Bridelia ferruginea on some clinical isolates. Agricultural Biology Journal of North America. 2010;3(1):418– 419.
Evans J. Mistletoe good for more than kisses. Journal of American Botanical Council. 2005;68:50–59.
Sofowora AE. Medical plant and traditional medicines in African. 2nd Edition Spectrum books, Ibadan, Nigeria; 1993.
Garland S. The Herbs and Spices Book. Frances Lincoln publishers, London; 1972.
Achinewhu SC, Ogbonna CC, Hart AD. Chemical composition of indigenous wild herb, spices, fruits, nuts and leafy vegetables used as food. Plant Foods Human Nutrition. 1995;48(4):341– 348.
Echo IA, Osuagwu AN, Agbor RB, Okpako EC, Ekanen BE. Phytochemical composition of Aframomum melegueta and Piper guineense seed. World Journal of Applied Environmental Chemistry. 2012; 2(1):17-21.
Anyanwu CU, Nwosu GC. Assessment of the antimicrobial activity of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Piper guineense leaves. Journal of Medicinal Plant Research. 2014;8(10):337-439.
Tapsell LC, Hemphill I, Coblac L. Health benefits of herbs and spices.The past, the present and the future. Australian Medical Journal. 2006;185:54–24.
Akindahunsi AA, Salawu SO. Phytochemical screening and nutrient – anti-nutrient composition of selected green leafy vegetables. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2005;4:497–501.
Addae-Mensah I. Towards a national scientific basis for herbal medicine– a phytochemists two decade contribution. Accra Ghana, University Press; 1992.
Heikens H, Fliers E, Endert E, Ackermans M. Vanmontfrans G. Liquorice – Induced hypertension, a new understanding of an old disease. Journal of Medicine. 1995;5: 230–234.
Gill LS. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants in Nigeria. UNIBEN Press, Benin City, Nigeria; 1992.
Ashok K, Upadhyaya K. Tannins are Astringent. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2012;3(1):49-60.
Okoye EI, Ebeledike AO. Phytochemical constituents of Piper guineense (uziza) and their health implications on some microorganisms. Global Resources Journal of Science. 2013;2(2):42–46.
Manta S, Saxena J, Nema R, Singh D, Gupta A. Photochemistry of medicinal plants. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2013;1(6):168-182.
Lee KG, Shibumoto J. Determination of antioxidant potentials of volatile extracts isolated from various herbs and spices. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry. 2002;50:4947–4955.
Adesokan AA, Akanji MA. Antimalarial bioactivity of Enantia chlorantha stem and bark. Journal of Medicinal plants, Phytochemical, Pharmacology Therapeu-tic. 2010;4(1):441– 454.
Trease G, Evans SM. Pharmacognosy. 16th Edition. Edinburg: Harciut Publishers Limited; 2002.
Davis RH, Agnew PS, Shapiro E. Anti-arthritic activity of anthraquinones found in aloe for pediatric medicine. Journal of American Podiatric Medical Associa-tion.1986;76(2):61-66.
Dalziel IM. The useful plants in West Tropical Africa Handbook. 2nd Printing. Crown Agents; 1955.
Hutchinson J. Dalziel JM. Flora of Tropical West Africa. Part 1. Crown Agents for Oversea Government and Administra-tions, London. 1954;1.
Manandhar NP. Substitute spice in Nepal. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants. 1995;3:7–77.
Jabeen S, Shah MT, Khan S, Hayat SQ. Determination of major and trace elements in ten important folk therapeutic plants of Harispur basin Pakistan. Journal of Medical Research. 2010;4(7):559-566.
Nwachukwu CU, Ume NC, Obasi MN, Nzewuihe GU, Onyirioha C. The qualitative uses of some medicinal plants in Ikeduru LGA of Imo state, Nigeria. New York Science Journal. 2010;3(11):132-129-134.
Nunez V, Castro V, Nurillo R, Ponce-soto LA, Merfoot I, Lomonte B. Inhibitory effects of Piper umbellatum and Piper peltatum extracts towards myotoxic phospholipase A2 from Bothrops snake venoms: isolation of 4-nerolidylcatchol as active principle. Phytochemistry. 2005;66:1017–1025.
Ogunwande IA, Walker TM, Setzer WW. A review of aromatic herbal plants of medicinal importance from Nigeria. Article in Natural products communication. 2007; 2(12):1311-1316.
Agbor GA, Vinton JA, Oben JE, Ngogang JI. Invitro antioxidant activity of the Piper species. Journal of Herbal Phamaco-therapy.2007;7:39–46.
Nwauzoma AB, Dawari S. Studies on phytochemical properties and proximate analysis of Piper umbellatum (Linn). Department of Applied and Environmental Biology. River State University of Science and Technology. Port Harcourt Nigeria; 2013.
Isikhuemen EM, Bamawo, OP. Effect of forest understorey shade on vegetative growth and development of Thaumatococcus daniellii, (Benn.) Benth. Nigerian Journal of Forestry. 2013; 43(1&2):45–52.
Beak Consultants. Forest resources study Nigeria. Revised Forest Management Plan Edo State. Report prepared by Beak Consultants Ltd in association with Geomatics International Inc. and Geomatics Nigeria Ltd for FORMECU Federal Department of Forestry, Abuja, Nigeria; 1999.
Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM. Flora of West Tropical Africa. Crown Agents for Overseas Governments and Administrations, London. With annotations (marked APD) from African Plants Database (version 3.4.0). Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève and South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria; 1937.
Available:http://www.villege.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/
Akerele JO, Ayinde BA, Ngiah J. Phytochemical and antibacterial evaluation of the stem bark of Newbouldia laevis against isolates from infected wounds and eyes. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2011:10(2):211–218.
Krishnaiah D, Sarbatly R, Bono A, Sarbatly R. Studies on Phytochemical constituents of six Malaysian medicinal plants. Journal of Medicinal Plant Research. 2007;3(2):67-72.
Soladoye MO. Chukwuma EC. Phytochemical analysis of stem and root of Cissus populnea (Vitaceae) – An important medicinal plant in Central Nigeria. Phytologia Balcanica. 2012;18:149–153.
Piero NM, Joan MN, Richard OO, Jalemba MA, Omwoyo OR. Determination of cyanogenic compounds content in transgenic and cyanogenic Kenyan cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) genotypes: Linking molecular analysis to biochemical analysis. Journal of Analytical and Bioanalytical Techniques. 2015;6:264–271.
AOAC. Official methods of analysis of the association of officials’ analytical chemists. 17th Edition. Association of official analytical chemists. Arlington, Virginia; 2003.
Gul S, Safdar M. Proximate composition and mineral analysis of Cinnamon. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition. 2009;8(9): 1456–1460.
Zougagh S, Belghiti A, Rochd T, Zerdani I, Mouslim J. Medicinal and aromatic plants used in traditional treatment of the oral pathology: The ethnobotanical survey in the economic capital Casablanca, Morocco (North Africa). Natural Products and Bioprospecting. 2018;9:35–48.
DOI: 10.1007/s13659-018-0194-6
Phillips O, Gentry AH, Reynel C. Wilkin P. Ga´lvez Durand BC. Quantitative ethnobotany and Amazonian conservation. Conservation Biology. 1994;8(1):225–248.
Available:https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08010225.x
Vitalini S, Iriti M, Puricelli C, Ciuchi D, Segale A, Fico G. Traditional knowledge on medicinal and food plants used in Val San Giacomo (Sondrio, Italy)—an alpine ethnobotanical study. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2013;145(2):517–529.
Suroowan S, Mahomoodally MF. A comparative ethnopharmacological analysis of traditional medicine used against respiratory tract diseases in Mauritius. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2016;177:61–80.
Pfeiffer JM, Butz RJ. Assessing cultural and ecological variation in ethnobiological research: the importance of gender. Journal of Ethnobiology 2005;25:240–278.
Available:https://doi.org/10.2993/0278-0771(2005)25%5b240:ACAEVI%5d2.0.CO;2.
Howard P. The Major Importance of ‘minor’ Resources: Women and Plant Biodiversity (International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), London; 2003.
Ould EHM, Hadj-Mahammed M, Zabeirou H. Place of spontaneous plants in the traditional medicine of the region of Ouargla (Northern Sahara), Courrier du Savoir. 2003;03:47–51.
Available:http://www.webreview.dz/IMG/pdf/6-Ould_H_didi.pdf
Benlamdini N, Elhafian M, Rochdi A, Zidane L. Etude floristique et ethnobotanique de la flore me´dicinale du haut Atlas oriental (Haute Moulouya). Journal of Appllied Bioscience. 2014;78: 6771–6787. Available:https://doi.org/10.4314/jab.v78i1.17
Chinwendu S, Eike EN, Ejike BU, Oti W, Nwachukwu L. Phytochemical properties of Uziza leaf. European Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 2016;3(2):31-42.
FAO/ WHO. Human vitamin and mineral requirements. Report of a joint FAO/WHO expert consolation. Bangkok, Thailand; 2001.
Nair M, Balachandran KK, Sankarnarayan VN, Joseph T. Heavy metals uptake in fishes from coastal waters of cochin, South West Coast of India, Indian Journal of Marine Science. 1997;26:98-100.
Mensah JK, Okoli RI, Ohaju-Obodo JO, Eifediyi K. Chemical nutritional and medical properties of leafy vegetables consumed by Edo people of Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2008;7: 2304–2309.
Njoku PC, Arykumefula MI. Nutritional, phytochemical and antimicrobial properties of two wild aromatic vegetables. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition. 2007;6:613–615.
Johnson SK, Blanchard A. Alternative medicine and herbal use among university students. Journal of American Coll Health. 2006;55(3):163-16.
Adegbola JD. Molluscicidal properties of some African plants. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative medicine. 1972;107:108–115.
Sumathykutty MA, Rao JM, Padmakumari KP, Narayanan CS. Essential oil constituents of some Piper Species, Flavors Fragrance. Journal. 2007; 14:280-281.
Saxena M, Saxena J, Nema R, Singh D. Gupta A. Phytochemistry of medicinal plants. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2013;1(6):177–196.
Memudu AE, Akinrinade ID, Ogundele ON, Dare BJ. Effects of crude extract of dry fruits of Piper guineense on male fertility parameters of adult Sprague Dawley rats. European Journal of Medicinal Plants. 2015;5(3):297-303.
Ekanem AP, Udoh FV, Oku EE. Effects of ethanol extract of P. guineense seeds on the conception of mice (Mus musculus). African Journal of Pharmacology. 2010; 4(6):362–367.
Atindehou KK, Schmid C, Brun R, Kone MW. Traore D. Antitrypanosomal and antiplasmodial activity of medicinal plants from Cote d'Ivoire. Journal of Ethno-pharmacology. 2004;90:221–227.
Jiofack T, Fkunang AC, Guedge N, Kemeuze, V. Ethnobotany and phytomedicine of the upper Nyong Valley forest of Cameroon. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2009;3(4): 144–150.
Hammer MGA, Johns EA. Tapping an Amazonia Plethora. Four medicinal plants of Marajo Island (Brazil). Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1993;40:53–75.
Burkhill HM. Piper umbellatum Linn (Family: Piperaceae). West tropical Africa, 2nd Edition. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK; 1985.
Ndukwu BC, Ben-Nwadibia NB. Ethnomedical aspect of plants used as spices and condiments in the Niger Delta area of Nigeria in Press. International Journal of Ethnobotanical Research. 2009; 2(1):51–58.
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